Research Papers

E. W. Clay’s Life in Philadelphia Series During the 1830’s, among the antislavery protest, freeborn blacks of Philadelphia represented the wealthiest and most educated group of African Americans in the country. They established their own schools, churches, and even a social order. Associated to the cultural and social economic status, African American clubwomen of Philadelphia were greatly ridiculed in racially prejudiced cartoons such as E. W. Clay’s popular â€Å"Life in Philadelphia† series. E. W.Clay was inspired to make these series by George and Robert Cruikshank who had published a â€Å"Life in London† series. His late 1820s feature series â€Å"Life in Philadelphia† fight with who African Americans could be in the social world; a world that relied on race and slavery as powerful signs of inequity. His response was brutally racist: in Philadelphia, those African Americans who took on the frills of urban life were strained and out of p lace. Clay’s analysis came in the form of fourteen engraved plates, a series that was one part observation, one part artistry, and one part imagination.Clay’s series presented American spectators a cruel portrayal of black figures that offered an exaggeration in overdressed clothing and proportions, awkward poses, and thus failed to measure up to the demands of freedom and citizenship. In Clay’s cartoons, not only was their style being ridicule but their language as well. In his 1828 â€Å"Is Miss Dina at home? † cartoon he mocks the person by declaring that an African American with a business card is simply a laughable concept. Blackness, as illustrated by Clay, provided his free black subjects mistaken aspirants, were always controlled by incomparable distinction.Clay’s varieties of drawings were inspired by the way some of the African American women had started to carry themselves out. They added a touch of certain things, that perhaps were not permissible by their society, and it made them give the impression trying to be different. They might have imitated their middle-class etiquette and their ways of life, but they always overreached, or as one of Clay’s characters put it, â€Å"aspire too much†. This series of cartoons were an observation that everything they did was taken as a joke.Clay was not the only American caricaturist active during the Jacksonian era, but he was the first American artist to specialize in political caricature. His work was pointed towards African Americans; therefore in the south it was pointless for southern whites to purchase these images. The south already had slavery and was establishing social perimeters. Nevertheless, many people still bought his cartoons. The early success of Clay’s images is example to his ability to tap into the nations fears and appeal with the dilemma on slavery and in abolition.His â€Å"Life in Philadelphia† etchings mocked the fancy dre sses, their manners, and dialects of Philadelphians, white and black. Today these images are often used as basic examples of discrimination against blacks. However, an inspection shows humorous, theatrical pictorial satire, grounded in Philadelphia culture just before the rise of the Abolition Movement. Clay’s work shows that he reserved that right to comment on events and personalities regardless of political affiliation as well as the right to change his mind on issues. Although Clay’s point of view varies from topic to topic, he did not always follow a party line in his caricatures.

Generally Accepted Accounting Principles Essay

In recent years healthcare systems have become more like business entities than health care providers. Technology is continually evolving so is healthcare and its financial approach. Generally Accepted Accounting Principles (GAAP), is a guide used by healthcare providers to account for their financial activities. GAAP is a guideline or a group of objectives and concepts that have evolved over 500 years from the basic concepts of Luca Pacioli set forth in the 1400s (Omar, 2010). It comprises a set of principles that have been developed by the accounting profession. According to Saunders (1993), â€Å"Financial Accounting Standards Board (FASB) established the rules and guidelines which require CPAs to indicate whether an audited set of financial statements is in compliance with GAAP† (p. 104). They are five principles and each one will be discussed in relation to healthcare. These are paramount to the effectiveness of business accounting. Accounting principles include the follo wing: accounting entity, money measurement, duality, cost evaluation, and stable monetary unit. Accounting Entity An accounting entity is the business or corporation that performs clear economic activities, separate from any personal economic endeavors (Cleverly, Cleverly, & Song 2011). In health care accounting entities can be surgical centers, hospitals, clinics, home health agencies, nursing homes, or other entities that are part of a larger health care network. An accounting entity requires financial records that define organizations financial activities that are clear and concise. Cleverly, Cleverly & Song (2011) states that if an entity is not properly defined, evaluation of its financial information may be useless at best and misleading at worst. The entity is expected to maintain its accounting records in accordance to GAAP. Money Measurement Measurement is the process of determining the monetary amounts at which the elements of the financial statements are to be recognized and carried in the balance sheet and income statement as a contribution to the accounting theory of extensive measurement (Scrimnger, & Musvoto,2011). Resources and liabilities have to be considered and calculated to determine accurate money measurement in an organization. These resources are referred to as assets, which include money, buildings and equipment. In health care these assets include, buildings, cash-flow, and equipment. Liabilities will be salaries to the employees and loans owed from banks and any other companies they are in business with. In most normal situations assets exceed liabilities in money measured value (Cleverly, Cleverly & Song 2011). An entity shall not recognize an element of financial statement unless a reliable value can be assigned to it. Duality. This is a fundamental convention of accounting that necessitates the recog nition of all aspects of an accounting transaction. According to Cleverly, Cleverly & Song (2011), â€Å"The value of assets must always equal the combined value of liabilities and residual interest, which we have called net assets†. He goes on to explain the basic accounting equation, the duality principle, may be stated as follows: Assets=Liabilities +Net assets. In any given situation the value of assets will always equal the value of claims. Cost valuation. When looking at an organization one needs to know about the assets and their value. When assets are recognized the basis for valuation needs to be determined. The two bases are historical and fair value (Saunders, 1993). The amount paid for the asset is the basis for valuation which is referred to historic and fair value is the amount an asset could be exchanged between knowledgeable willing parties. The firm’s accounting statements reflect the company’s financial status and this is presented in the balance sheet. GAAPs in the United States require the valu ation of fixed assets at historical cost, adjusted for any estimated gain and loss in value from improvements and the aging, respectively, of these assets. As mentioned previously hospitals now operate as business entities, and their accounting operation is the same as any other entity. Stable monetary unit. In any organization, the monetary unit principle assumes that the value of the unit currency in which you record transactions remains stable over time. This concept allows accountants to disregard the effect of in inflation, a  decrease in terms of real goods of what the dollar can purchase. Monetary unit assumption makes accounting process manageable however it can be problematic. If in any case the value of money changes rapidly due to market conditions or policy changes, a business’s financial statements may be less useful for comparison with prior records (Omar, 2010). Accounting focuses on the financial aspects of the business and that too for matters which can be expressed in terms of currencies. Nurse Managers must be able to communicate with financial managers of the organization as they help steer the overall direction of the organization (Saunders, 1993). The health care operation relies on revenues from patients billing and in turn help sustain the business on them and any other income. Health care systems are able to run business successfully by using GAAP guidelines. We have seen in this discussion that the five principles of accounting are essential in daily business operation. The understanding of accounting entity, money measurement, duality, cost valuation and stable monetary unit will help any health organization to manage their finances well. References Cleverly, W. O., Cleverly, J. O., & Song, P. H. (2011) Essentials of health care finance (7th ed.). Sudbury, MA: Jones and Bartlett. Omar, O. (2010). Why Generally Accepted Accounting Principles Should Inform U.C.C. Article 9 Decisions. Texas Journal Of Law Review, 89(1), 207-226. Saunders, G. (1993) Accounting principles (5th ed.). Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons. Scrimnger, C. C., & Musvoto, S.W. (2011). The Accounting Concept of Measurement And The Thin Line Between Representational Measurement Theory And The Classical Theory of Measurement. Journal of International Business and Economics Research, 10(5), 59-68.

Reading Lolita in Tehran: Themes †Women in Iran Essay

Reading Lolita in Tehran by Azar Nafisi is very symbolic of the women in Iran, as the ideas of resisting to accept the government, finding a sense of belonging and wanting to live in a fantasy world illustrates their thoughts during a very rough period of time. Nafisi, who represents the women of Iran, displays this via her progression throughout the novel, as it summarizes the struggles that women went through to endure a happy life in Iran. A theme that is repeatedly presented to us in this book is resistance. To be more specific, resistance by women against the new government that has been inaugurated. The new government taking over, making Iran an Islamic Republic results in the installment of numerous rules and regulations that oppress the female population. Nafisi’s thoughts are displayed when one her students says, â€Å"She resented the fact that her veil, which to her was a symbol of a sacred relationship to god had now become an instrument of power, turning the women who wore them into political signs and symbols† (Nafisi 103). The downgrading of women by the new regime makes Nafisi question her loyalty to her religion and results in her resisting by not wearing her veil. Not only this, but the regime preventing literature to be taught in Iran, especially work from the Western world causes Nafisi and her students to rebel by meeting in secrecy, despite the severe consequences that they would face if they got caught. When referring to meeting in secrecy, Nafisi says, â€Å"That room, for all of us, became a place of transgression† (Nafisi 8). For Nafisi and her female students, the room that they meet in had become an oasis for them as they are able to zone out from what was going on outside and spend quality time working on the one thing that they all enjoyed†¦ literature. Iran in the 1970s and 80s consisted of a population of women that were very well-educated. When facing oppression, these women did not shy down from protesting and taking part in demonstrations to get their point through. They had all built up this sense of courage and started using the motto, â€Å"it takes courage to die for a cause but also to live for one† (Nafisi 249). This statement made by Nafisi shows their confidence, as it propelled them forward to put up a fight to regain the rights that were lost. As the government tried to demolish their spirits, these women rose up and opposed by displaying their rebelliousness. Resisting to accept the new government is one of many themes that represents the thoughts and actions of women in Iran. Acceptance is another theme in the novel that can be tied to the symbolism of women during the revolution and war. To begin with, many women had trouble accepting the new Islamic based regime that had taken over. This can be seen by the actions of Nafisi, as she says, â€Å"We are not with the regime in our hearts and minds† (Nafisi 313). Even after saying this, Nafisi is compelled by the idea of not being able to teach and pass on her knowledge about literature. Women like Nafisi realized how helping the youth prosper would lead to a successful country in the future, and did not want to miss out on the opportunity to help, despite their feelings about the new rules. Not only this, but Nafisi is unable to understand how people around her are able to accept the new rules and regulations of the government so easily, as she struggles to cope with the fact that women were being demoralized. Nafisi, along with numerous women in Iran began to feel like outcasts within their own country and battled within themselves to identify the image that they wanted to portray. This can be seen when Nafisi questions herself, â€Å"When I walked down the streets, I asked myself, are these my people, is this my hometown, am I who I am† (Nafisi 74)? Finding a sense of acceptance regarding the revolution and war was their biggest goal but for many, not being able to speak their mind was unimaginable. After struggling to accept the new government, many Iranians decided to make the move to the western world. Nafisi decided that this was the best way to escape her problem of not being able to fit in. Soon after, Nafisi realized that leaving may not have been the best option for her. She says, â€Å"You get a strange feeling when you’re about to leave a place, because you’ll never be this way again† (Nafisi 336). Once again, she starts questioning herself and comes to the conclusion that Iran will always be where she hails from, regardless of the circumstances. Wanting to be accepted was something that women seeked in Iran, but as they fought with the idea of giving in to the regime, many of them were unable to find a way of fitting in and left Tehran for a better opportunity. The setting in Tehran had become unbearable for women, as the oppression had taken a huge toll on many of them. A way of getting away from this was by comparing the real world to a fantasy world that they could only dream of living in. One comparison that is made, is to an author by the name of F. Scott Fitzgerald. Nafisi and her book club see how their dreams for a better Iran are similar to the ideas that Fitzgerald incorporated in his book. Whilst discussing the book, a students says, â€Å"What we had in common with Fitzgerald was this dream† (Nafisi 144). Not only this, but Nafisi compares her life to Gatsby and sees this fantasy world that he lives in as being the place that they ultimately want to end up in. For the female population of Iran, these dreams had to be fulfilled, as the ideas of freedom and peace in the rest of the world were constantly being displayed. As the novel progresses, Nafisi interprets that dreaming is extremely valuable as she sees opportunity and hope in picturing a better outcome to the troubled times in Iran as seen in this quote, â€Å"It teaches you to value your dreams but to be wary of them too, to look for integrity in unusual places† (Nafisi 135). It is her dreams that strive her forward and keep her fighting for the freedom that she deserves. This novel by Azar Nafisi displays the life of Iranian women as they fought to win back the rights that were wrongfully taken away from them. The females rebelled with great integrity instead of accepting the regime and tried to place themselves in a fantasy world to make things better, but for many, the oppression was too much to handle causing them to flee the country for the sake of giving themselves an opportunity to live a happy life.

Disney case study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Disney - Case Study Example These are just to mention but a few strategies that saw the company to a real turnaround. Most important, was to increase customer base as well as customer satisfaction by capturing not only the kids as previously was, but also the tween and adult market. As a matter fact, specialization in kid market had retarded the company’s brand growth resulting to loss of important opportunities. This called for marketing strategies that would enable the company capture the tween and adult. Despite having prospered, the success story would have been greater if Disney had maximized in marketing and promoting their already existing products in conjunction with branding it to fit the entire market, not excluding the mobile sector. This could have been achieved via the marketing plan below. According to Lamb et al (2014), a marketing plan is based on a mission statement which should not possess a marketing myopia. Thus, having carried SWOT analysis of the industry, the mission statement ought to incorporate customer satisfaction, with mobile application increasing convenience and accessibility, in a manner that it eliminates addiction. Note that the SWOT analysis should consider creating awareness of the new branded franchises as a very important opportunity and thus incapacitate its internal strength towards successful marketing. As Disney operates in a very competitive industry, which is also very global, then he marketing strategy should allow for adaptations. Moreover, the main objective is to expand sales through market expansion. Therefore, sales promotion should be based on the various types of market which include, kids (already captured), and adult and tween market. As tween market makes a greater contribution, and then major emphasis needs to be done and woul d better be divided into boy tween and girl tween to capture each category precisely. In a nutshell, the

Methods of marketing research Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Methods of marketing research - Essay Example This differentiate it from Quantitative Research in which a large group of respondents provide data that are statistically analyzed. Qualitative research methods are used primarily as a prelude to quantitative research. They are used to define a problem, generate hypotheses, identify determinants, and develop quantitative research designs. They are expensive and slow. Because of the low number of respondents involved, these exploratory research methods cannot be used to generalize to the whole population. They are however, very valuable for exploring an issue and are used by almost all researchers. Quantitative research is an overall presentation of a research. It defines the problem, the research design and the method of data collection and most of all the data is interpreted using the various statistical tools like The data collected is interpreted and presented using charts, graphs and diagrams to be easily understood. The quantitative technique is more accurate because it involves a large number of sample compared to the qualitative technique. As qualitative technique is a proceeding event to the quantitative technique, it is used to define a problem, generate hypothesis identify determinants, and devel... They are expensive and slow. Because of the low number of respondents involved, these exploratory research methods cannot be used to generalize to the whole population. They are however, very valuable for exploring an issue and are used by almost all researchers. Examples: include focus groups, in-depth interviews, and projective techniques. Why Quantitative is more important in marketing research Quantitative research is an overall presentation of a research. It defines the problem, the research design and the method of data collection and most of all the data is interpreted using the various statistical tools like Parametric tests of a single sample: t test, z test. Parametric tests of two independent samples: two-group t test, z test. Parametric tests of two independent samples: two-group t test, z test Nominal/ordinal level test of a single sample: chi-square, Kolmogorov-Smirnov one sample test, runs test, binomial test and many more The data collected is interpreted and presented using charts, graphs and diagrams to be easily understood. The quantitative technique is more accurate because it involves a large number of sample compared to the qualitative technique. As qualitative technique is a proceeding event to the quantitative technique, it is used to define a problem, generate hypothesis identify determinants, and develop quantitative research designs, and qualitative research design cannot be used to generalize the whole population as it involves a less number of respondents. Example : If pepsi wants to launch its soft drink in a country and the manager wants to research that whether his soft drink (pepsi) would be suitable and profitable to launch in that country, then

The Movies and Research Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

The Movies and Research - Essay Example Truman continued to question further his existence since he noticed that everything that is going on in Seahaven revolve around his life. When Truman decided to seek out the truth to the world beyond Seahaven, the producers of the show tried as much as they can to prevent him from doing so by making plot twists in his daily activities that would avert any attempts made. Eventually, Truman secretly sailed off from his house, and was almost killed by a storm the producer of the show made. Realizing the morality in killing a cast member for the sake of a show would be an outrage, the producer allowed Truman to exit the arcological movie set and to see the real world beyond Seahaven. In this film, one of the main themes being shown is the concept of simulated reality. Simulated reality is an approach of observation, usually scientific, that makes events in reality replicated to a point that it is difficult to distinguish it from actual reality. This form of observation is the major plot basis for the movie The Truman Show and is the driving force for the main character’s actions and existential inquiries about his life. It should be remembered that in the setting of the movie, simulated reality is used as a form of mass media entertainment while setting aside any real or applied scientific usage. However, research in the movie setting is implied to have been done in a way to make the main character Truman spend most of his life believing that his world of Seahaven is the only reality. One could consider this form of research as a controlled form of observation, as every aspect of Truman’s daily life is being manipulated by external human actions. T his is done so skillfully that it has been an accepted fact by Truman even right on the day of his birth until adulthood. It should also be noted that the reason for the simulated reality scheme is for audiences of the show in the movie’s setting would watch an

U.S. GAAP vs. IFRS Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

U.S. GAAP vs. IFRS - Research Paper Example This allows matching of the accounting contract costs, as well as revenue with the accounting periods in which the construction work takes place (Bohusova, 2009). Another factor is that the accounting of fixed price construction contracts is done using percentage of the completion technique. According to Intermediate Accounting (2008), under such as case, the completed contract method is not permitted; there is no specific guidance on software revenue recognition and the guidance on sales of real estate is limited† (p.102). On the other hand, U.S. GAAP is based on rules; thus, it lacks an extensive guidance regarding revenue recognition specific to the type of contract or industry. Its revenue recognition is divided into two levels with the first part being the guidance in concepts statements. In the second level is the guidance for revenue recognition in particular industries, as well as transactions that are economically different. Revenue recognition in this case depends on two criteria that must be met as defined in the FASB Concepts Statement No.5, which notes that revenue must be realizable, as well as earned (Bohusova, 2009). Another point of difference is that in this case, the accounting for the construction contracts uses the percentage-of-completion method only on condition that certain criteria are met; if not the completed contract method is applied. Finally, GAAP unlike IFRS provides for a detailed on the recognition of software revenue, as well as on accounting for real estate sales (Int ermediate Accounting, 2008). In IFRS financial statement, the net income is exclusive of the interest expenses and interest revenues. IFRS reports on interest income with regard to financing activities only happens when the future economic benefits are put in place. On the other hand, GAAP performs report of its income under investing

Twisted by Laurie Halse Anderson Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Twisted by Laurie Halse Anderson - Essay Example The protagonist Tyler Miller has a hard life. His father works all day long and he is not the kind, understanding father his children would have wanted him to be. He has to face a lot of pressure at work and that is what makes him take his frustration out on his family by being intimidating and controlling. Tyler’s mother who is a pet photographer, cake baker, and a genuinely nice woman makes every attempt she can to keep her family together but her attempts fail and with every day that goes by she becomes more depressed. Hannah is Tyler’s younger sister who is just starting high school and whom he completely adores. His only friend in school is Calvin â€Å"Yoda† Hodge who later becomes the love interest of Tyler’s younger sister. He is in every way an average guy with an average dysfunctional family. Tyler is sick and tired of being a nobody in his high school and at the end of his junior year he decides to change that by doing the â€Å"Foul Deed† which involved doing graffiti on school walls. But things don’t go exactly as he planned and he gets caught. He is ordered to do community service all summer by helping janitors in his school. He also has to pay for the damages so he has to sell his car and take a landscaping job for the summer. After this incident Tyler develops a reputation as the trouble maker and due to his hard job he also develops the physique which in turn makes him more attractive to his secret crush, the sister of his main tormentor who also happens to be the daughter of his father’s boss, Bethany Milbury.... Initially he is happy that he is invited to enjoy along with the popular crowd of the school but after the party where Tyler’s love interest Beth, her brother Chip and his friends get drunk and Tyler is left driving them home, he is accused of doing some unspeakable stuff to Beth. Being rich, Beth’s family is easily able to take a lot of steps to punish Tyler for the crime he has not even committed. He is not only tormented by his peers at school but he is also distressed when his father treats him like a criminal. This is a great book for several reasons. Firstly Laurie Halse Anderson did an exceptional job portraying the average youth. Tyler’s narration is heartbreaking, honest and funny. What makes Tyler such a remarkable character is that he is by no means perfect. He has been an outcast nerd his whole school life and he lacks the courage to stand up against his tyrant of a father. He also doesn’t have the determination required to be able to take char ge of his life and change things for the better. Tyler loves his mother and sister and he is enraged when he sees his father pushing them around but he doesn’t take any action against it. Tyler’s father is demanding and he forces Tyler to take all the advanced classes in school. Tyler knows that he can’t do well in the advanced class and even though he faces continuous trouble with his studies, never once can he muster the courage to make things straight with his father. His reason for not doing so is that he thinks talking with his father would do no good so he does not even give it a try. When he faces all the trouble at school he starts planning ways to escape his problems instead of

Training and Development (7) Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Training and Development (7) - Assignment Example The career development model would set specific target for employees, and therefore employees may be eager to achieve their targets as fast as possible. In order to gain better career achievements, employees necessarily need to develop improved skills and capabilities. Hence, effective career management would encourage employees to actively participate in development activities. In short, career development model would greatly assist organizations to implement their training programs and development activities successfully. Benefits of Career Development to Companies Generally, companies are very interested in helping employees to plan their career because this strategy benefits firms to achieve their short term as well as long term objectives successfully. As discussed earlier, the career development model would assist companies to keep its employees motivated (career motivation) and this situation in turn may assist organizations to reduce issues like absenteeism and staff turnover to a great extent. As Lindner (1998) points out, motivated employees would be more productive relative to others and hence an organization can improve its profitability by helping employees plan their career. Another benefit of this policy is that it would assist companies to minimize worksite conflicts to a large extent, because motivated employees will always try to contribute to team efforts. However, companies also face some challenges while helping employees to plan their career. First, organizations need to raise additional funds to finance the career development program. Secondly, a firm’s top management has to spend a considerable amount of time to operate the career development model. Components of Career Motivation Career resilience, career insight, and career identity are the three components of career motivation. Career resilience can be simply defined as the extent to which employees are capable of managing the problems that affect the efficiency of their work. â€Å"Career insight involves (1) how much employees know about their interests and their skill strengths and weaknesses and (2) their awareness of how these perceptions relate to their career goals† (Chapter 11). Finally, career identity refers to the extent to which employees are able to define their personal values in accordance with their nature of work. Career resilience is identified to be the most important component of career motivation whereas career insight appears to be the least important component. The level of career resilience is an important determinant of an employee’s commitment to the company. Hence, an employee with high level of career resilience can easily deal with his/her worksite problems and thereby contribute to the firm’s overall productivity. In contrast, an employee’s career insight does not directly influence the company’s operational efficiency as this component specifically relates to the employee’s career go als. Psychological Contract A psychological contract can be defined as â€Å"the expectations that employers and employees have about each other† (Chapter 11). The psychological contract reflects the view that the organization would provide long term employment and development opportunities to its employees if they stay with the company and maintain high level job performance. Pay increases and promotion may be the major

MS Excel Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

MS Excel - Essay Example Since the decisions that managers make are based on data presented to them, the value of Excel is undoubted.. However, in order for managers to understand what the data they have implies, they must make use of analysis tools. Microsoft Excel provides them with such tools. In Excel, managers find different analysis tools particularly those used for statistics. Hypothesis testing is one are in which Excel may be employed. The program offers several functions that may be used for hypothesis testing. Such functions include the Chi-square, t-test, z-test, as well as other statistical analysis tools that are most often used to test certain hypothesis. Simply put, a manager can make decisions that are hinged on sound and logical analysis that he or she performs through Excel. Decision making involves the interpretation and analysis of data. Utilizing Excel, managers can perform several types of analysis that are usually employed. These include regression analysis, statistical analysis, and trend analysis. With Excel, the manager has an efficient and time-saving tool to aid his decision making process. The survey should merely aid the company in understanding their workforce better. However, in no way must its results be used to profile the future hires of the company as well as for the ideal employee of a company. Since the respondents in the survey came from different companies, their lev

How organizational culture relates to innovation Essay Example for Free

How organizational culture relates to innovation Essay How Organizational Culture Can Support Creativity and Innovation when we think of the terms Innovation and creativity we automatically think of the Individual. We often ask ourselves, what can the Individual bring into an organization? What type of creativity does the Individual have that can support the organization and how would it help the organization grow? As we ask ourselves these questions we are often overlooking the important aspects that correlate to an individuals capability of creativity and innovation It is important to understand the context In which the Individual functions (Mclean. 05, pg,227). one vltal aspect Is the organizational culture. organizational culture Is denned as the shared values, beliefs and traditions that exist among individuals In an organization. When we refer to the culture in an organization we should consider if everyone In the organization have shared values and beliefs that contribute towards the organization. If so what is the organization doing to influence these work ethics. It is important that individuals maintain a healthy organizational culture because it is an observable powerful point In the organization. hitch has a potent effect on the company well king and Its success. Now that we have analyzed the Importance of organizational culture, lets examine In how it can be done. Creativity and Innovation comes into the organization in a form of a cycle in most cases. These two aspects are influenced by the organizational culture, while the organizational culture is mostly influenced by the organization itself and the experience the workers bring with them tom previous employers (Qwabe. 2013, P. 3). The organization Influences from the very beginning of the hiring process. From the selection process the company chooses a certain amount of Individuals In which they eel have qualities that can bring a positive outlook to the company. These qualities may include; dynamic personalities, strong values and a clear vision on how to operate the business. Another way the company influences from this point is the type of attitude the interviewer is portraying to the interviewee. During the selection process the Interviewer gives a sense out their ethos and their attitude towards the company. This approach transmits to the Interviewee and Influences them In such a way that can determine the enthusiasm on being hired (Qwabe, 2013, P. 7) The other influence the organizational culture has is the experience the workers bring with them from previous employers and other external forces. Past experience can affect the work ethics and any contribution an individual may have with the current company. The influence towards the organizational culture can also be vice versa, In which the experience the company had with the previous employees. In such case the organization learns from critical experiences from the external forces. As the learning occurred, the organizations history becomes memories that After the selection process the organization must continue the positive attitudes nd work as leaders to maintain the positive behavior to ensure long term survival for the organization culture. When the organization leaders motivates the employees, the employers are more likely to feel engaged to their work resulting from better and more satisfactorily work outcomes (Sarrows, Cooper, Santora, 2008, P. 46). There are many tactics some organizations have developed to transmit this motivation and to enhance the positive working environment within the organizational culture. There are six factors in which the organizational leaders use to promote the positive environment. These six are; articulating a vision for the future, providing an appropriate role model, fostering the acceptance of goals, setting high performance expectat ions, providing individual support and providing intellectual stimulation (Sarrows, Cooper, Santora, 2008, P. 46-147). Organizational leaders use these six factors to affiliate it into their own leadership style. This helps them with the enhancement of creativity and innovation by advocating the organizational culture. There are four functions in which help bring the organizations culture to life. These four functions include organizational identity, sense making device, collective commitment and social system stability (Qwabe, 2013, P. 12). The first function that will be discussed is the organizational identity. When an organization has a sense of identity it is giving the employees a better sense with what the organization wants, giving the employee a more coherent vision and understanding to the organizations objective. Therefor it is providing the employee a more comfortable state where the employee can feel more part of the mission while also strengthening the establishment of what the company is really about and what they stand for. The second function is the collective commitment. When referring to collective commitment we are referring to the energy the employee drives around the important aspects of the favors the organization. It is important for an organization to articulate collective commitments because when employees assemble together and commit themselves to their goals and missions, the relationship amongst each other change for the better. They feel morally obligated to embody their own actions and motivate each other to reach their daily goals. Social system stability is another function of organizational cultural, yet it is also a very important appliance to the organization itself. Social system stability provides a more positive work environment giving the opportunity for the employees to have a more respectable work place. This function helps employees with the ability to resolve conflicts using a problem-focused approach rather than a person focused approach or a blaming mentality. These approaches help avoid any possible conflicts in the workplace creating the workplace to be less tensed and a more complaisant environment. device the organizational culture is being given a broader understanding on what the companys strategy and values are. It gives the employee a sort of behavior shaping hat helps employees a sense of their surroundings. With this function the employees have a better comprehension in to the objective of the organization, how the organization functions and how the organization aspires to succeed their goals (Qwabe, 2013, P. 13-14). In conclusion it is set that organizational culture does indeed support creativity and innovation. These articles have also prover that the organization itself is greatly influenced within the members of the organizational culture. This is an important aspect of a successful organization. References Qwabe, N. P (2013). University of Fort Hare Faculty of Management Commerce Department of Industrial Psychology. (ONINE) Available at:http://www. academia. edu/1964153/ Organisational_culture_lnnovation_and_creativty. (Last Accessed 1 1. Nov. 2013). McLean, L. D. (2005). Organizational Cultures Influence on Creativity and innovation: A Review of the Literature and Implications for Human Resource Development. Advances in Developing Human Resources, 7(2), 226-246. Sarrows, J. C. , Cooper, B. K. , Santora, J. C. , (2008). Building a Climate for Innovation Through Transformational Leadership and Organizational Culture. Journal of Leadership and Organizational Studies. 15 (2), pp. 145-148

Evolution of aviation during World War II Essay Example for Free

Evolution of aviation during World War II Essay The year between the two great Wars saw the continuation and expansion of aviation technology. By now, European nations knew the uses of airplanes in war times. Even though disarmament was commanded by the treaty of Versailles, many nations (mostly Europeans) continued to advance their aircraft technology in a lesser or higher degree (Pavelic, 2007, p. 2). Unlike the First World War, there was greater interest in research and advance studies on material science, aerodynamics, engine thermodynamics and fuel technology that favored the extensive use of monoplane and the use of new high powered weapons in fighter planes like cannons and rockets (Mathews, 2001, p. 9). Even though Germany was denied to build an air force by the Treaty of Versailles, nevertheless, they continued to conduct covert aeronautical research for secret rearmament plans during the interwar years. Secretly they also bought aircrafts from other countries. It can be said therefore that in spite of being banned to build military aircrafts, Germany was up-to-date in aircraft development. In fact by the time the Pact of Paris (1926) relaxed their restriction on German aviation development, Germany built some of the most advanced aircraft in the world (Pavelic, 2007, p. 2). Increasing the speed and rising at high altitudes had remained the preoccupation of aircraft development in the interwar and Second World War. Altitude was very important to the military because of their mission to intercept and attack invading bombers (Matthews, 2001, p. 9). For conventional type of airplanes, development was geared toward increasing speed and altitude through engine development, particularly the piston engine and turbo jet engine. Britain had design one of the best liquid-cooled aircraft engines, the Rolls Royce Merlin, used in World War II for two heavy bombers, the Supermarine Spitfire and Hawker Hurricanes (Pavelec, 2007, p. 7). However, the alternative to piston engine, the turbojet engine (engine without propeller) can be considered the greatest achievement in the history of aviation in terms of speed development and solved the problem of jet propulsion during the interwar and the Second World War. It was Germany who led in this development in the person of Dr. Hans von Ohain who completed a flight-worthy turbojet engine for aircraft, commencing the jet age on August 27, 1939. Throughout the war, the race for jet speed was dominated by the Germans and they were the ones who initiated to produce jet aircraft for combat operations. Other countries soon followed suit (although they have their own jet inventions at the same time that the Germans developed it but with less support) in producing turbojet engine. In Britain, it was Frank Whittle who developed a turbojet engine that powered the Gloster Pioneer on May 15, 1941 and the only Allied combat jet aircraft ,Meteor. By the end of the war, airplanes of the Second World War travel in faster speeds than their predecessors, with a record of 606 miles per hour by the British Gloster Meteor IV powered by a turbojet engine (Matthews, 2001, p. 6). Radar was also an innovation in aviation during the Second World War. When the First World War had ended, nations had realized that airplanes, especially those carrying bombs, will pose a threat to their safety. Therefore, radar systems were developed and in the Second World War, they were installed in airplanes to detect enemy aircrafts or ships, or to help in navigation or to accurately locate bombing targets ( Perry, 1988, p. 703). IV. Conclusion It is very obvious that due to the pressing need of the First and Second World War, the history of aviation took a rapid turn. It is at this period that aircrafts changed its role from transport and reconnaissance vehicle to destructive weapons of war when fighter and bomber planes were developed. Airplanes also undergone rapid change in physical appearance from biplanes to monoplanes and from using fabric to full-metal body. During the interwar periods, as aircrafts were already seen as an integral part in war victory, in-depth researches in aerodynamics and thermodynamics and other engineering technology related to flying was undertaken well into the Second World War. Moreover, the quest for greater speed and high altitudes was improved in the Second World War upon the invention of turbo jet engines as an alternative to the piston engines of the First World War.

Stress is a world wide phenomenon of modern lifestyles

Stress is a world wide phenomenon of modern lifestyles Stress at work has become these days the headline of news papers and the talk of the day. It is a world wide phenomenon of modern lifestyles to which our island is not an exception. Various researches show that extreme job stress can harmfully affect the emotional and physical health of workers, which ultimately results in decreased productivity, less satisfaction, and less healthy workers. This chapter therefore serves as the foundation for the development of this study. In this chapter, the theoretical literature on organizational stress is examined. The main aim of this section is to go beyond a simple description of the literature so as to acquire an understanding of the topic in a theoretical context in order to better investigate the subject matter having direct applicability to my dissertation. 2.1 Definition of stress Stress is not necessarily something bad it all depends on how you take it. The stress of exhilarating, creative successful work is beneficial, while that of failure, humiliation or infection is detrimental. -Hans Selye (1956) Stress is an imprecise term that can be defined in different viewpoints. In fact, almost anything anyone can think of, pleasant or unpleasant has been described as a source of stress. Research in this particular area has followed several avenues. Hans Selye (1936), one of the founding fathers of stress research, defined stress as Stress   is   the   bodys   nonspecific   response   to   a demand   placed   on   it. He believed that most stressors are neutral, until, by our own thinking, we change them into negative effects or positive effects. Since then, further research has been conducted on the topic and ideas have moved on. Stress is now viewed as bad things, with a range of harmful effects. For Arnold and Feldman (1986), stress is defined as the reactions of individuals to new or threatening factors in their work environment. This definition implies that new situations often arise in our work surrounding, so stress is bound to occur. During the 1980, however, stress was considered as an unfavorable factor not only in physical and mental health, but in other areas of life as well. In the organizational environment, for example, stress was implicated in the deterioration of individual performance efficiency, which in turn, affected the overall performance of the organization (Gaines and Jerimer, 1983). Stress was also been linked to high personnel turnover in organizations (Bowers, 1983). The Confederation of British Industry (CBI) on the other hand in 1991, defines stress as that which arises when the pressures placed upon an individual exceed the perceived capacity of that individual to cope. According to Trade Union Congress (TUC), stress occurs where demands made on individuals do not match the resources available or meet the individuals needs and motivation. Stress will arise if the workload is too large for the number of workers and time available. Equally, a boring or repetitive task which does not use the potential skills and experience of some individuals will cause them stress. In order to explore this topic further, some of the recent literature on the subject must be considered. It is probably useful to start by considering the legislation on the subject by the Health and Safety Executive (HSE). In 2008, the HSE stated that stress is the adverse reaction people have to excessive pressure or other types of demand placed upon them. According to research made by Mc Cromick (2005), stress is the relationship between the person and the environment that is appraised by the person as taxing or exceeding his or her resources and endangering well being. For Auerbach et al,(2007), stress refers to an unpleasant state of emotional and physiological arousal that people experience in situations that they perceive as dangerous or threatening to their well-being. 2.1.1 Types of stress Stress can be of two types, good and bad. Most people believe that stress is always bad. Nothing can be far from the truth! A little stress is absolutely necessary for our survival in this highly competitive world! Thus, stress is classified into two groups namely: Eustress: The Good Stress Eustress is the good stress that helps us to improve our performance. A certain amount of positive stress keeps us pepped up to meet all challenges and is essential for our survival and progress in life. Distress: The Bad Stress Distress is a negative form of stress. This occurs when the mind and body is unable to cope with changes, and usually occurs when the norms are being deviated. They can be categorized into acute and chronic stress. Acute stress is severe. It lasts for a short period of time. On the other hand, chronic stress lasts over a long period of time. In Gestalt Therapy Verbatim (Real People Press, 1969), Perls proposes a more general definition, where stress is a manifestation of thinking about the future. According to Perls, there is no difference between good and bad stress. They are both created by thinking about the future. Moreover, French, Kast, and Rosenweing (1985) also emphasized the idea that stress itself is not necessarily bad. The term stress can be considered neutral with the words distress and eustress used for designating bad and good effects. They propose a model that defines an optimum range of stress in terms of its effect on performance. Stress levels below a minimum level result in decreased performance and rust-out. 2.2 Symptoms of Stress Stress is defined by Ganster and Murphy (2000) as a form of strain provoked in response to situational demands labeled stressors which occur when jobs are simultaneously high in demands and low in control. Selye (1946) was the first to describe the phases that the body goes through in response to a threat. Selye defined the general adaptation syndrome, which states that the body passes through three stages. The first stage is an alarm reaction. This is typified by receiving a shock, at the time when the bodys defences are down followed by a counter-shock, when the defences are raised. All bodily systems work together to provide maximum energy for fight or flight. The second stage is resistance. If the stress continues, the body builds up a tolerance to its effect. The body becomes habituated to the effects of the stressor, however, the bodies adaptive energies are being used as a shield against the stressor. The third stage is exhaustion. If the stressor continues to act on the body, however, this acquired adaptation is eventually lost and a state of overloading is reached. Williams and Huber (1986) provide a comprehensive list of the symptoms of stress. These are constant fatigue, low energy level, recurring headaches, gastrointestinal disorders, chronically bad breath, sweaty hands or feet, dizziness, high blood pressure, pounding heart, constant inner tension, inability to sleep, temper outburst, hyperventilation, moodiness, irritability and restlessness, inability to concentrate, increased aggression, compulsive eating, chronic worrying, anxiety, inability to relax, excessive use of alcohol and excessive use of smoking. Furthermore, job stress can make people more susceptible to major illness. (Roseman and Friedman, 1971) 2.3 Causes of stress There are various causes of job stress, but whichever the cause, it is bound to fall into one of the two categories, namely individual causes or organizational causes. However, it is the interaction of the personality of the worker and the working conditions that create higher level of stress. It will be beyond the scope of this dissertation to name each and every causes of job stress as there are too many, so we will just list some of the major ones by regrouping them under each category. 2.3.1 Individual Causes An individual must perceive a stressor in order for it to have a blow on them, and peoples personalities determine how they will recognize something. Some people may see certain events as more stressful as others. An individual may experience the same situation differently; it all depends on their personalities. A shy person may experience more stress than an outgoing person. Therefore, differences in individual factors such as personality and coping style are most important in predicting whether certain job conditions will result in stress. Many researches have been done in this field which shows that there are personality variables such as Type A behavior and Type B behavior. Stress seems to be a factor in these personality types and specifically how a person responds to stress. According to Timothy and Moore (2001), Type A people are achievement oriented, irritable, impatient with delays, and seem to be always in a hurry. They are substantially involved, committed to their work and often neglects other aspect of their lives. This type of personality shows a tendency to suppress stress symptoms and fatigue because they think that illness might interfere with the completion of various important tasks. The relationship between Type A behavior and symptoms of stress is supported in a study of 236 managers in 12 different companies (Howard, Cunningham, and Rechnitzer, 1976). This showed that Type A behavior was associated in a significant way with high blood pressure and higher cholesterol levels. Individuals having Type A personalities are those who tend to create a lot of stress in their lives. In contrast to Type A, Type B people are less competitive, and more easy going. Robbins (1998) stated that Type B people are more relaxed with no sense of urgency or worry about time that is wasted. They often stop to reflect on and review performance or what they have been doing. They think of themselves and approach life more calmly. As such, they can deal more effectively with job stress. 2.3.2 Organizational Causes Although individual factors play a great role in causing stress, yet scientific evidence has shown that certain working conditions are stressful for most people. Stress affects people at work in many ways and the causes of stress are diverse. Studies by Cooper and Marshall (1978) into source of managerial stress identified an organizational boundary with the individual manager straddling that boundary and, in effect, endeavoring to cope with conflicting stressors created by external demands (the family) and internal demands (the organizations). This is depicted in Figure 2.1. The managers response may be affected by individual personality traits, his tolerance for ambiguity, his ability to cope with change, specific motivational factors and well-established behavioral patterns. Within the organization, a number of stressors can be present. These include those associated with: The job Role in the organization Career development Organizational structure and climate Relations within the organization On the other side of the organizational boundary is the organizations interface with the outside world. Here conflict can be created where there may be competition for an individuals time between the organization and his family, or between the organization and an individuals own particular interests or hobbies. Role in organization Role conflict/ambiguity Responsibility for people No participation in decision making etc.Figure 2.1 Sources of managerial stress Intrinsic to job Too much/too little work Poor physical conditions Time pressures Decision-making, etc Career development Over-promotion/under promotion Lack of job insecurity Thwarted ambition, etc. Individual Manager Personality Tolerance for ambiguity Ability to cope with change Motivation Behavioral pattern Organizational structure and climate Lack of effective consultation Restriction on behavior Office politics, etc Organizational boundary Relations within organization Poor relation with boss Poor relations with colleagues and subordinates Difficulties in delegating responsibility, etc. Organizational interface with outside Company versus family demands Company versus own interests, etc. Source: Cooper and Marshall (1978). Stress at work: Management and Prevention, p.23 TUC (2008) lists the main causes of stress as overwork, bullying, low job control and satisfaction, job insecurity, new ways of working, poor work organization and pace of work can all cause stress. Bhagat (1983) has reported that work performance can be seriously impaired by external stressors. There are many aspects of organizational life that can become external stressors. These include issues of structure, managements use of authority, monotony, a lack of opportunity of advancement, excessive responsibilities, ambiguous demands, value conflicts and unrealistic workloads. A persons non-working life (e.g., family, friends, health and financial situations) can also contain stressors that negatively impact job performance. According to Anderson (2002), work to family conflicts is also a predecessor which creates stress in employees of organization. According to McGrath (1978), adverse working conditions such as excessive noise, extreme temperatures, or overcrowding, can be a source of job-related stress. Reitz (1987), reports that workers on swing shifts experience more stress than other workers. Orth-Gomer (1986) concludes that when three shifts are used to provide around-the-clock production, major disturbances in people may be unavoidable. Arnold and Feldman (1986) emphasize the deleterious effects of role ambiguity, conflict, overload and underload. Role ambiguity is often the results of mergers, acquisitions and restructuring, where employees are unsure of their new responsibilities. According to Kahn and Byosiere (1992), role conflict concerns incompatible role expectations. Such conflict is related to conceptual differences between workers and different supervisors regarding the content or importance of required job tasks. This creates conflict: the commitment to a number of superiors versus the individuals values pertaining to the organizations requirements. Katz and Kahn (1978) states that role overload is frequently created by excessive time pressures, where stress increases as a deadline approaches, and then rapidly subsides. Today, role overload is understood to be distinct from role conflict. Role overload is related to number of sick days, feelings of anxiety, frustration, depression, decrease in self-confidence, job burnout, attention and concentration problems and work accidents. (Glisson et al., 2006; Kahn and Byosiere, 1992). Role underload is the result of an insufficient quantity, or an inadequate variety of work. Both overload and underload can re sult in low self-esteems and stress related symptoms. Moreover, poor interpersonal relationships are also a common source of stress in organizations. Arnold and Feldman (1986) cite three types of interpersonal relationships that can evoke a stress reaction namely: too much prolonged contact with other people, too much contact with people from other departments and an unfriendly or hostile organizational climate. Furthermore career related concerns such as job security and advancement are often source of stress. Holmes and Rahe (1967) constructed a scale of forty-three life events, and rated them according to the amount of stress they produce. The most notable feature of their instrument is that many positive life changes (i.e. marriage, divorce, Christmas, vacations etc.) are substantial sources of stress. Generally, stress appears to be a result of any change in ones daily routine. French, Kast, and Rosenweig (1985) believe that any situation that requires a behavioral adjustment is a source of stress. However, a situation that is stressful for one person might not be stressful for another. According to Parasuraman and Alutto (1984), older workers seem to be less strongly affected by stressful situations. Arnold and Feldman (1986) suggest that individuals with high self-esteem and a tolerance for ambiguity are less prone to stress-related illness. 2.4 Consequences of stress The impact stress has on employee performance is no less dramatic. Just as stress accumulates in our bodies, stress accumulates in organizations as well. At high levels, it destroys organizational climate, lowers organizational performance, and weakens organizational effectiveness. While Holmes and Rahe (1980) are concerned mainly with the physiological consequences of stress, there is a wide array of attitudes and behaviors that are affected by stress as well. The consequences of job stress on employee performance are as listed in the table below. Table 1.1 Consequences of Job Stress Consequences of Job Stress Physical Health Psychological Well-Being Performance Decision Making 2.4.1 Negative effects of stress on employee performance Stress within the organization cannot be overlooked. Anderson (2003) states that stress exists in every organization either big or small and the work places and organizations have become so much complex due to which it exists, work place stress has significant effects over the employees job performance. Stress does have a negative impact on employee performance. For instance, Pickering (2001) states that the consequences of stress in the workplace can be very varied and include high sickness, absence and staff turnover together with poor performance. In addition, stress has been frequently associated with industrial sabotage. Workers sometimes create mechanical failures on the assembly line to give themselves a break from the monotony and strain of their work. Job stress also has an impact on individual productivity. Rose (2003) claims that in every organization and at every level of management and workers an elevated average level of stress is to be found which mostly has an effect on employees job satisfaction. As will be seen in Figure 2.2, McGrath (1976) chartered out the job stress performance curve to explain how stress affects performance. Figure 2.2: Job Stress and performance P E High R F O R Moderate M A N C E Low Low Moderate High Source: McGrath, J.E. (1976). Handbook of Industrial and Organizational Psychology, p.1363 Figure 2.2 illustrates that as individuals start feeling more stress at work, their performance will increase. They are thrilled to take advantage of new opportunities or to deal with potential problems. In fact, they will be encouraged to work harder than when they are experiencing little or no stress. People will push themselves to their performance limits under moderate amounts of stress. However, as we can see from the above figure, if stress becomes too high or persists for a long period, performance begins to decrease. People suffer exhaustion; they can only work at a fever pitch for so long. The longer the stress lasts, the more their physical and emotional energy gets drained. Thus, it can be seen that the relationship between stress and performance is curvilinear. People perform best under moderate amounts of stress. According to McGrath (1976), stress also affects effective decision making. Employees who are highly stressed are more likely to procrastinate and to avoid having to make decisions. Moreover, employees who are under stress have difficulties to concentrate, they are not able to finish their tasks on time, they tend to commit mistakes in their work and often they forget important pieces of information. As a result, all these lead to degradation of employee performance. 2.4.2 Positive effects of stress on employee performance Despite the fact that stress has negative impacts on employee performance, it does have some positive effects as well. According to Suedfeld (1979), life would be very dull indeed if it were altogether devoid of challenges. He concluded that an intermediate level of stimulation and challenge tends to be optimal for most people. Second, stress may frequently promote personal growth. Stress must sometimes force employee to develop new skills, learn new insights, and acquire new strengths. Last but not the least, todays stress can inoculate us so that we are less affected by tomorrows stress. If stressful experience is moderate in intensity and does not overwhelm us, it may increase our subsequent stress tolerance. (Suedfeld, 1979) 2.5 Managing Stress Managers of organizations have a double perception of stress. They need to be aware of their own stress levels, as well as those of their subordinates. Most of the literature focuses on ways of reducing stress. However, a more appropriate approach might be to examine ways of optimizing stress. French, Kast, and Rosenzweig (1985) state that the challenge is to minimize distress and to maintain eustress. They point out that the conditions of organizational life create a series of paradoxes that demonstrates the need for balance and equilibrium. The role of management becomes one of maintaining an appropriate level of stress by providing an optimal environment, and by doing a good job in areas such as performance planning, role analysis, work redesign/job enrichment, continuing feedback, ecological considerations, and interpersonal skills training. 2.5.1 Overcoming stress at work According to Jick and Payne (1980), there are essentially three strategies for dealing with stress in organizations. The first strategy is to treat the symptoms, secondly change the person and thirdly remove the cause of stress. When a person is already suffering from the effects of stress, the first priority is to treat the symptoms. This includes both the identification of those suffering from excessive stress, as well as providing health-care and psychological counseling services. The second approach is to help individuals build stress management skills to make them less vulnerable to its effects. Examples would be teaching employees time management and relaxation techniques, or suggesting changes to ones diet or exercise. The third approach is to eliminate or reduce the environmental situation that is creating the stress. This would involve reducing environmental stressors such as noise and pollution, or modifying production schedules and work loads. Furthermore, some researchers have suggested that in order to prevent role conflict, organizations should function according to the classic organizational theory principle of unity of command, that is, the employee should be supervised by a single superior and work according to a single plan. According to Weisner (2003) and Rizzo et al. (1970), an organization which cares for its employees must spare them the cross-fire of two or more superiors who have incompatible work instructions and expectations. Organizational theory maintains that each role should have a particular array of tasks and areas of responsibility (Weisner, 2003). Clear definition of role requirements gives superiors license to expect employees to be responsible for performing their roles. But if employees are not aware of the role requirements and what is expected of them, they will hesitate to make decisions and will work by trial and error aiming to meet their superiors expectations (Rizzo et al., 1970). There are many other successful ways of dealing with stress. These include stress reduction workshops, tranquilizers, biofeedback, meditation, self-hypnosis, and a variety of other techniques designed to relax an individual. Programs that teach tolerance for ambiguity often report positive effects. One of the most promising is a health maintenance program that stresses the necessity of proper diet, exercise and sleep. Last but not the least, Katz and Kahn (1978) suggest that managers can create nurturing and supportive environments to help minimize job-related stress. Social support systems seem to be extremely effective in preventing or relieving the deleterious effects of stress. Friends and family can provide a nurturing environment that builds self-esteem, and make one less susceptible to stress. One study found that government white-collar workers who received support from their supervisors, peers, and subordinates experienced fewer physical symptoms of stress. (Arnold and Feldman, 1986) 2.6 Empirical Review Nowadays, call centers and BPOs are booming in a high speed that the people have to work for prolonged hours to maintain the standard of living and achieve their basic needs. So is the condition in the hospitals, colleges, textile and banking sector and lots of other places. In spite of having the modern technologies and facilities, people are feeling themselves to be work loaded and stressed. In this chapter, a broad brush approach, that is, attempting to cover all situations, conditions or instances, is adopted to examine the detailed empirical works necessary to verify or disprove the potential explanations that we tentatively identify concerning the impact of stress on employee performance. Empirically, substantial progress in this field of research has been made possible by Ko de Ruyter, Martin Wetzels and Richard Feinberg (2001), who conducted a research on Role stress in Call centers: Its effects on employee performance and satisfaction. Their study was conducted among call center employees of a large insurance provider in the Netherlands. According to their research, both role stress ambiguity and role stress conflict had a significant and negative relationship with job satisfaction. When role stress increased, job satisfaction decreased, which in turn influences job performance and turnover intention. Moreover, a spate of suicides at France Telecom has put the spotlight on workplace stress and the devastating impact it can have on employees performance. Research by Mark Tutton (2009), has found that there have been 24 suicides and 13 attempted suicides among France Telecoms 100,000 employees since the beginning of 2008. These cases of suicides were apparently because of stress at work. A thirty-one year old woman jumped to her death from her fifth floor office window after she was told her job was changing again.   A worker stabbed himself in the stomach during a staff meeting and a fifty-two year male killed himself and left behind a note saying.I am committing suicide because of my work at France Telecom. Employees of France Telecom have cited constant pressure to resign, impossible goals, frequent forced relocations and chaotic reorganization. Davey, DeBortoli, Parker, Smolkin (2003), in their typology analysis, regarding stress at work, revealed that stress is a widespread phenomenon among Canadian employees. They conducted their research in Watson Wyatt (which surveyed 180 organizations, representing more than 500,000 full-time Canadian employees). According to this survey, 79% of the respondents claimed that stress, anxiety and depression are the main cause of short-term disability and 73% of respondents claimed that these psychological disorders results in long-term disability. Moreover, the average length of stress-related absences is four times higher than for absences resulting from workplace accidents and occupational diseases.

The Behaviorist and Cognitive Approaches to Psychology Essay -- Papers

The Behaviorist and Cognitive Approaches to Psychology In this essay I am going to explore two of the major approaches to Psychology, Cognitive theories and Behaviorist theories. I will discuss in some detail the two approaches, state how they compare and illustrate the similarities and the differences between them. John Watson, one of the founders of Behaviorism, based his theories on the principles of learning outlined by Pavlov who suggested the theory known as Classical Conditioning; he trained dogs to salivate whenever he rang a bell. Dogs have a natural reflex response to salivate when they see food, Pavlov rang a bell when the dogs were given food and after several repetitions of this action, the dogs began to salivate whenever they heard the bell, even when there was not any food there. This approach rejected the idea of the conscious mind. Albert Ellis & Aaron T Beck developed the present form of the Cognitive approach to psychology in the 1950’s. This development emerged from a growing dissatisfaction with the narrowness of the behaviorist approach as it neglects complex human activities such as planning and communication. Behaviorists emphasize the relationship between the environment surrounding a person and how it affects a person’s behavior. This approach has a tendency to ignore mental processes. Behaviorists believe that studying the brain is not ultimately the best or most effective way to understand behavior. A person might act oddly in one particular environment, but normal in others. Whilst cognitive psychologists agree with the behaviorist theory that the environment surrounding a person does have some inf... ...hey may be thinking or feeling, if focuses on what you can see not the emotions. It is difficult to measure the thinking or feeling of independence and the behaviour of others, as well as the expectations of others in any particular given situation, for example John Watson believed that given the right environment anybody could be made into anything. Sources of Information ====================== Psychology – A New Introduction by Richard Gross, Rob McIlveen, Hugh Coolicun, Alan Clamp and Julia Russell (Twelfth Edition) Hilgards Introduction to Psychology by Rita L Atkinson, Richard C Atkison, Edward G Smith, Daryl J Bern and Susan Nolen-Hoeksema (Second Edition) Basic Psychology by Henry Gleitman (First Edition) www.sntp.net/behaviourism.thml http://scs.une.edu.au/Materials/573/573_4.html

Negative Aspects of Animal Testing Essay -- Biology Medical Biomedical

An Evil Science: ANIMALS IN RESEARCH Dating back to ancient times, animals have been used in research to advance biomedical sciences. However, the ways the human race can exploit these living creatures are absolutely evil. The main concern animal rights advocates have are not concerned with the idea of using animals in research but the way people can torture these animals. The twentieth century has witnessed some of the cruelest acts of violence in the laboratory but it has also seen the rise of the animal rights movement. Cruelty will always exist in this world, in some form or another, but hopefully it can be abolished from the laboratories. One could hear the agonizing screams of the horse from a great distance. Inside the lab the horse was being wrestled to the ground as its limbs were bound with ropes. The researchers sat on the horse to keep it still as they were carrying out their cruel deed. Sometimes this experiment could take up to four hours and always the horse was fully conscious as its throat was slit to expose the jugular vein. After the scientists extracted the blood they needed to make a cheap medicine, they left the horse to bleed to death and then they threw the mutilated carcass onto the streets. This is only one example of the cruelty associated with animals in research. In this case, a horse was tortured and slaughtered to obtain a blood serum that is now rarely used due to the risk it poses to humans. A simple and humane alternative to this process is to merely use a needle to draw blood from the animal. (http://stopanimaltests.com/f-turkishHorses.asp, 7/30/06) Advocates for animal testing claim that, since the beginning of history, many advances in biomedical sciences have been a product of using anima... ...d though it still cannot be seen, the end of animal testing is approaching ever so slowly. In some laboratories evil continues to prevail, but in many others, good is dominating. Works Cited Stephens, Martin L., Ph.D. Alternatives to Current Uses of Animals in Research, Safety Testing, and Education. Washington, DC: Humane Society of the United States, 1986. "The Hidden Lives of Rats and Mice." Stop Animal Tests. People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals. 30 July 2006 hiddenrats/ >. "Animal Testing." Wikipedia. 27 July 2006. 30 July 2006 . Pratt, Dallas, M.D. Alternatives to Pain. N.p.: Argus Archives, 1980. Ryder, Richard. "Institutional Speciesism: Cruelty is Wrong." Animal Experimentation: Good or Bad? By Richard Ryder, et al. London: Hodder & Stoughton, 2002. 57-74.

Process Analysis Essay for Writing Papers -- essays research papers

Process Analysis Essay   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  When writing a paper it can be very difficult unless you break it up into sections. When I had to write my first paper I felt like a man on a desert island all alone without a clue on how to do anything. But with the help of a few teachers they taught me how to survive on the island of writing papers. What the teachers taught me was that just like everything in life it needs to be taken in steps. The steps they taught me still apply to the papers I write to this day.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The first thing you need when you write a paper is a strong foundation. Everything must start at the bottom and be built up. This applies to everything. It all starts with an idea. So start your paper with an idea, write them all down and now you have your foundation. It is just a plot of land but it’s there u just need to get it ready to be built on. So take your ideas and polish them and refine them until your have a clear well thought out idea. Now your foundation is clear and ready to be built upon.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  But as with building a house you need to get the materials to create what is going to be built. You cant just have an idea in the paper and not have any support. You need to go and gather information from several sources to support your idea. You can find this in books, Internet, and magazines. I would recommend at least 3 sources or more if possible. Also make sure they are credible sources not just John Doe’s site on the civil war. Once you have your sources you can ac...

Analysis of stopping by woods on a snowy evening by robert frost Essay

The poem, â€Å"Stopping by Woods on a Snowy Evening† by Robert Frost is one that appears rather simple. The speaker is walking through the woods that have been freshly laden in snow. He is admiring the scenery laid before him. Even though he wants to stay and take in more of what he is seeing, he keeps his other duties in mind and how much distance there is left for him to fulfill them and mentions there is a choice he has to make which is considered most suitable. The poem begins with the speaker entering into these woods. He claims to know the owner of the woods but he states that he (the owner) lives in the village and he or anyone else can see him trespassing. The speakers’ horse shows some form of dismay and acts as if he is protesting against his owner when he stops to observe his surroundings, since there is no other form of visible life around. At the very start of the poem it gives a hint that the speaker likes the feeling of being isolated from civilization since the woods have no other houses or people nearby. Since there are no other people around, he seems to be at ease with himself. It’s as though he is taking a break from his hectic lifestyle in these woods. He is momentarily away from all his work, his social life, his regular daily stresses or anything else that might make him unbalanced. He decides to use this opportunity to bond with nature, this shows that the speaker is indeed a nature lover and he cannot help himself but to admire what is seeing. He observes the way the snow is falling and making the trees, land and the lake white and cold. He gets this sense of serenity and simplicity as he gapes on at the act nature makes. The speaker appears to be very kind and caring because he tries to understand what his horse is trying to tell him. It shows that he cares about his horse dearly and he loves it, the same as with nature. There is also the feeling of depression as he is partly drawn back to his reality when the horse alerts him. He thinks about the duties left to be fulfilled and is taken aback. One of the main influential literary techniques Frost uses in this poem is imagery. This poem continually shows that even though he is enjoying his sights, he is always pulled back to his reality. The horse represents his constant reminder of where he is in life and â€Å"the promises he has to keep.† The fact that the horse even questions if it is really necessary for him to stop, â€Å"to ask if there is some mistake,† it shows that the horse is telling him he has places to be. The imagery also shows that the man is questioning whether he should continue his journey or not since he is wary and wants to retire from his life. He is observing his scenery as if he his noting where he is going to die, â€Å"the darkest evening of the year† and â€Å"miles to go before I sleep.† The lines â€Å"†¦lovely, dark and deep† gives the impression that he thinks death is more calming and soothing to his needs and once he dies he will truly be at peace and the woods are drawing him in closer and closer. This form of imagery also gives the woods this mystical nature. However in the end of the poem he chooses to continue on his journey and fulfil his promises and he ignores the temptations of death. In the poem the lines â€Å"†¦frozen lake,† and â€Å"darkest evening of the year,† symbolizes that all is not well in the speakers life. It indicates how dark and cold his life is at the moment. The woods take the role as the symbol of death, especially in the lines â€Å"the woods are lovely, dark and deep.† It is as though the woods have this magnetic force persuading the man to surrender his life. Traces of personification can be noted in this poem where the horse is concerned. In the lines â€Å"my little horse must think it queer,† and â€Å"to ask if there is some mistake,† the horse has been given the human abilities to ask and think about what the man is doing. In the first and third stanzas there are adequate amounts of alliterations that can be observed. For example the constant use of the â€Å"th† in â€Å"Whose woods these are I think I know†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.in the village though† and the â€Å"w† in â€Å"Whose woods†¦.he will not †¦..to watch his woods,† in the first stanza create these alliterations. In the first and third stanza the alliteration is created when the excessive use of the â€Å"h† in â€Å"his house†¦.he will not†¦to watch his woods,† and â€Å"he gives his harness bells a shake.† In the end of the poem there is a main metaphor, â€Å"and miles to go before I sleep,† this metaphor means that the speaker is trying to complete his tasks before he dies. Sleep often represents death and the miles would represent his journey until he reaches his final destination in this life. The style of â€Å"Stopping by the Woods on a Snowy Evening† makes it easy to read the poem; it gives it a natural flow. Frost writes the poem in the iambic tetrameter (four feet). For example, Whose woods these are I think I know. His house is in the village though; He will not see me stopping here To watch his woods fill up with snow. The rhyme scheme of each stanza is continuous and flows in the order of A, A, B, A. it introduces a new rhyme on the third line of each stanza. Even though this poem appears to be simple it contains a few surprises for its readers. It exposes how desperate a person can be in order to seek some form of pleasure in their life. It shows how many people take the beauty of nature for granted, it helps to demonstrate how big of an effect harmonizing with nature can have on us. The illusions of life can be clear to the mind once given the opportunity. While the speaker was observing the woods he felt relief and a form of unknown happiness which he clearly longs for. It shows that if he does nothing to help himself in this life he will not know true happiness anytime soon unless he gets out and fulfills it. This theme of choices in life is common to the usual work of Robert Frost. Many of his poems are affiliated with the life and landscape of New England and this one is no different. Frost, an American poet who wrote in the late eighteenth to early nineteenth centuries, he usually uses nature and vivid imagery to bring across his points and the messages in his poems. His work encourages us not to give up when we think life has no real meaning or purpose anymore, but that we do in fact have plenty to live for even though we may get wary. It is always better to experience your own happiness rather than to observe someone else’s at a distance. Works Cited Shmoop Editorial Team. â€Å"Stopping by Woods on a Snowy Evening Rhyme, Form & Meter† Shmoop.com. Shmoop University, Inc., 11 Nov. 2008. Web. 7 Oct. 2013. http://www.shmoop.com/stopping-by-woods-on-a-snowy-evening/rhyme-form-meter.html John Hollander. â€Å"A Close Look at Robert Frost†, Copyright 1998 The Academy of American Poets. Web. 7 Oct. 2013. http://www.poets.org/viewmedia.php/prmMID/15894

Communication in Children / Young People Essay

Speech, language and communication play a vital role in our lives. Without being able to talk to, and understand other people we can’t do things alike: Almost everything we do involves speech, language and or communication Children develop communication skills from birth. They rely on speech, language and communication to be able to learn at school and play with their friends. They need these skills to reach their full potential. Children begin to understand words before they can say them. They then learn how to say these words and how to put them together to make sentences. Some develop quickly, while others may take longer. Being able to say what you want? and to understand what others are saying are the most important skills we need in life. Yet many people take communication for granted. For some children and young people, communicating with others is difficult and they have speech, language and communication needs – SLCN. This short essay outlines the importance of communication at school, and provides information about SLCN and highlights ways through which a better environment can be structured to facilitate better communication and how those who support them need to understand their difficulties and their ways of communicating. What is (SLCN)? The term speech, language and communication needs (SLCN) encompass a wide range of difficulties related to all aspects of communication in children and young people. These? can include difficulties with fluency, forming sounds and words, formulating sentences, understanding what others say, and using language socially. † Bercow, J. (2008) The Bercow Report: A Review of Services for Children and Young People (0-19) with Speech, Language and Communication Needs, p. 13. Put simply, children and young people with SLCN find it difficult to communicate with others. This can be because of difficulties with speech, with talking, with understanding what is said to them or with interacting with other people around them. How well adults understand SLCN can have a really important effect on the impact SLCN make on children and young people’s lives. For some, language is the only difficulty they have; everything? else, like their cognitive and physical skills are ok. This can be called a primary or specific speech, language or communication difficulty or impairment. You may hear the term SLI (specific language impairment). For others, their SLCN are part of another condition. This can include things like learning difficulties, autism and hearing impairment. SLCN can be very severe and complex. The impacts for children and young people can be felt across all areas of their learning and development. Some children and young people have less severe forms of SLCN. This may be called delayed speech, language and communication. Children and young people are developing speech, language and communication in the same way? as others, following typical patterns of development, but at a slower rate. Defining Speech, Language and Communication Speech: refers to, saying sounds accurately and in the right places in words; speaking fluently, without hesitating, or prolonging or repeating words or sounds. Language: refers to speaking and understanding what is been said; using words to build up sentences, sentences to build up conversations and longer stretches of spoken words and making sense of what people say. Language is used to represent concepts and thoughts. Communication: refers to how we interact with others; Communication is a vital and continuing process. It is the means by which all humans make contact, share experiences, understand their world and find their place within it. Why are speech, language and communication skills important? Speech, language and communication skills are the building blocks for learning. Children use their knowledge of sounds in learning to read and spell. They use the words they know to understand what they hear, to share what they think and to ask questions. These words and concepts are vital for making sense of new information or ideas that they are finding out about. Children and young people’s interactions at school with adults and their peers are crucial in supporting their learning. Research has shown that in areas of social disadvantage, at least 50% of children have delayed language. (Locke, A. , Ginsborg, J. , and Peers, I. 2002) however, it’s important to note that children and young people from all areas and backgrounds can have delayed language. Clinical Pragmatics reflects an emerging awareness that some communication difficulties could not be attributed to ‘purely’ linguistic problems. For a long time before that, practicing speech and language therapists had worked with children and adults whose primary difficulties seemed to lie with the understanding and/or production of connected discourse. (‘Relevance Theory and Communication Disorders’ Eeva Leinonen and Nuala Ryder, 2008. ) Communication is the basis of our lives and we would in this day and age, be handicapped without it. Everyday we are communicating with each other in some way or another, be it by using words, actions or even expressions in conveying a message. Communication refers to the exchange of thoughts and ideas with the intention of conveying information. The purpose of communication is to convey one’s beliefs, ideas, thoughts, or needs with clarity so as to reach a consensus or a mutually acceptable solution. But there are factors that can either hinder or help us communicate effectively or not they can be physical or non- physical. The Physical- refers to the environment surrounding the participants in the communication process; for example: (good) good ventilation, chairs and other materials are properly arrange, temperature is set just right, the place or venue is presentable.. tc. (bad) a very noisy place, air pollution, the place is very dirty and the materials for the event is not properly arrange, poor ventilation and extreme temperature. Non physical- negative attitudes of both source and receiver are barriers to effective communication this comes in the form of disinterest, bigotry, arrogance, or negligence. Facilitating effective communication among children with SLCN A communication friendly environment should make communication as easy, effective and enjoyable as possible. It should provide opportunities for everyone to talk, listen, understand and take part. There are also simple ways you can make your classroom ‘communication friendly’. This might include thinking about: Space, light and layout? , Noise levels? , Using visual support? , Clear and consistent routines Whatever age you teach, whatever your subject, language is crucial. How many new words do you use in one day? How much do your classes talk with each other, work in groups or share what they have done with the rest of the class? How do you use language to instruct, explain, question and extend? How much written language is there too? The Cambridge Primary Review states: ‘the ways in which teachers talk to children can influence learning, memory, understanding and the motivation to learn. ’ The first step in identifying a pupil? who has SLCN is by someone noticing that they are struggling with their communication. As a teacher, you have a crucial role in being the ‘someone’ who spots these difficulties. Some ways to help improve communication? are using simple language? ; Use short chunks of language and; only include the important points; repeat and rephrase where necessary; slow your speech and insert more pauses; ? se shorter sentences? and, avoid difficult words. This will support the communication development t? of all children and young ? people but for some, more specialist interventions will be needed by suitably qualified and experienced professionals e. g. SLT’s and specialist teachers. This might be through a recognized programme such? as the Nuffield Dyspraxia Programme, Language ? through reading or social ? use of Language Programme, or through a combination of approaches tailored to suit the individual child. Communication may be supported through AAC ? uch as signing, use of low- tech strategies such as Picture Exchange Communication System (PECS) or an electronic voice output device. This will also mean that adults supporting these children will need specialist skills and training. Conclusion With the right support at the right time, children and young people with SLCN can have their needs understood, identified and supported. This will enable them to engage positively with learning and socializing, to develop independence and a positive self-image and to experience a wide range of life chances.

Globalization and Local/Regional Economy Essay

Globalization as defined by World Bank is the increasing integration of â€Å"economies and societies world wide† (â€Å"World Bank Group,† 2001). Globalization is also perceived as a process or a trend wherein economically speaking, the money flows in the international market unconstrained and capital is reorganized allowing a maximization of profit (Robinson, 2004, n. p). On the other hand, culturally speaking, globalization has the capacity to integrate, adopt, and influence diverse cultures and the power to remove cultural barriers (Rothkop, 1997, n. p). Considering the fact that globalization is crossing over geographical borders, such trend is greatly affecting local and regional affairs at the same time. Las Vegas, Nevada also known as â€Å"The Sin City† is the world’s entertainment capital (â€Å"Las Vegas Convention and Visitors Authority,† 2008). Also famous for its casinos and different recreational activities, the city caters to various people. According to the 2005 U. S. Census Bureau data, the total population of Las Vegas is 538,653 wherein 273,147 people 16 years and above are in the labor force (â€Å"Las Vegas Government,† 2007). This figure shows how financially advantageous it is to invest capital in Las Vegas and to establish business there. Aside from that, the same survey conducted by the U. S. Census Bureau shows that the population of Las Vegas is very diverse such that many people from all over the world resides or works there. There are Asians, Latin Americans, African Americans and Americans (â€Å"Las Vegas Government,† 2007). What is the significance of the city’s diverse cultural affiliates and its highly advantageous economic status? Taking the concept of globalization into consideration, noting the importance of Las Vegas’ society will be very beneficial for the domestic affairs and stability of the city. Las Vegas is filled with entertaining games and activities like casinos, amusement parks and bars. These can open opportunities for the city to promote its services to the global arena. As characterized by globalization, the flow of money towards Las Vegas will be unconstrained since many investors in the international market see a great advantage in placing their stocks in the businesses held in Las Vegas like in the hotels and casino gaming industry. Aside from the flow of money via the negotiations in the international market, the city also employs cash from the local market through their visitors and tourists availing their services. Through all these economic undertakings, the people in the local and regional areas of Las Vegas will really benefit since there is a high inflow of cash and greater socio-cultural development projects for the people. In relation to the socio-cultural implication of the services and some goods in Las Vegas, there is also the observable manifestation of globalization. As what was stated earlier, globalization includes overcoming territorial boundaries and crossing over. Statistics show that in Las Vegas, 19. 4% of the residents are also foreign language speakers aside from being English speakers (â€Å"Las Vegas Government,† 2007). This means that many of the people in Las Vegas are foreigners who also avail the goods and services in the city. Moreover, since there is a huge influx of Latin Americans in the U. S. , the said trend also spills-over in Las Vegas where many Latin Americans work in shops and also holds businesses there. Also, through Las Vegas’ theatre, arts, music, cuisine and other cultural undertakings, they are also able to transcend borders right at their very city where various performers and artists from around the world presents (â€Å"Las Vegas Convention and Visitors Authority,† 2008). It is observable from this analysis of Las Vegas’ cultural and economic affairs that globalization is, indeed, an international trend and is greatly affecting the local agenda of states. It is therefore important to not always be reminded of the influence of globalization when a state is creating their policies both in the economic and socio-cutural aspects. References Las Vegas Convention and Visitors Authority. (2008). Las Vegas. Retrieved May 6, 2008 from http://www. vegas. com/. Las Vegas Government. (2007). Facts and Statistics. Retrieved May 6, 2008 from http://www. lasvegasnevada. gov/. Robinson, W. (2005). A Theory of Global Capitalism. Maryland: John Hopkins University Press. Rothkop, D. (1997). In Praise of Cultural Imperialism? Effects of Globalization on Culture. Retrieved May 6, 2008 from www. globalpolicy. org/globaliz/cultural/globcult. htm. The World Bank Group. (2001). Globalization. Retrieved May 6, 2008 from htp://www1. worldbank. org/economicpolicy/globalization/.